James Printer, also known as Wowaus, (1640–1709) was a Native American from the

Nipmuc The Nipmuc or Nipmuck people are an Indigenous people of the Northeastern Woodlands, who historically spoke an Eastern Algonquian language. Their historic territory Nippenet, "the freshwater pond place," is in central Massachusetts and nearby part ...

tribe who studied and worked as a printer in Cambridge, Massachusetts. He was one of the most famous early Nipmuc writers. Printer was the first Native American

printer's devil A printer's devil was a young apprentice in a printing establishment who performed a number of tasks, such as mixing tubs of ink and fetching type. Notable writers including Ambrose Bierce, Benjamin Franklin, Walt Whitman, and Mark Twain served ...

in America as well as one of John Eliot's most accomplished interpreters who assisted in the creation of the

Eliot Indian Bible The ''Eliot Indian Bible'' ( alq, Mamusse Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum God; also known as the ''Algonquian Bible'') was the first translation of the Christian Bible into an indigenous American language, as well as the first Bible publishe ...

Early life

Little is known of Printer's early years. Printer was born in the Indian Praying town of Hassanamesit near what is now Grafton, Massachusetts. He was the son of Naoas. Naoas was a convert of John Eliot and a leading member of the Christian Native church in Hassanamesit.

Education

Printer attended Harvard's

Indian College The Indian College was an institution established in the 1640s in order to educate Native American students at Harvard College in the town of Cambridge, in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The Indian College's building, located in Harvard Yard, wa ...

beginning in 1659. He worked as an apprentice to Samuel Green at his printing press. Through his apprenticeship he became an accomplished typesetter and he pursued a printing career for most of his life. He lived and worked among the English for nearly his entire life.

Printing career

Printer was the first Native American

in America. He played an instrumental role in the printing of John Eliot's Indian Bible, the first bible printed in America which was printed in the

Massachusett language The Massachusett language is an Algonquian language of the Algic language family, formerly spoken by several peoples of eastern coastal and southeastern Massachusetts. In its revived form, it is spoken in four communities of Wampanoag people ...

. Printer helped to complete a thousand copies of the Indian Bible before the end of 1663. While other Native Americans helped Eliot in the creation of his Bible, Printer is said to have been Eliot's most accomplished interpreter who did more than any of the other interpreters to translate the Bible into the Massachusett dialect. Several scholars point out the bible was most likely composed by Native Americans and that Printer along with

Cockenoe Cockenoe (also known as Cockeno, Cockenow, Chachaneu, Cheekanoo, Cockenoe, Chickino, Chekkonnow, Cockoo) (born before 1630 and died after 1687) was an early Native American translator from Long Island in New York where he was a member of the Mon ...

and

Job Nesuton Job Nesuton (died 1675) was a Native American translator who translated large parts of the Eliot Indian Bible, the first Bible printed in America. Job Nesuton was a Massachusett active in John Eliot's mission to the Indians of the Massachusetts ...

deserve at least equal credit for the production of Eliot's collection of publication in Native American languages. In addition to the Indian Bible, Printer helped to produce Indian Primers and two books of Psalms. He also typeset

Puritan The Puritans were English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries who sought to purify the Church of England of Catholic Church, Roman Catholic practices, maintaining that the Church of England had not been fully reformed and should become m ...

missionary works which publicized his and other Christian Native Americans' piety. Involved in the typesetting of the Cambridge editions of Mary Rowlandson's famous captivity narrative, ''

A Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson A Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson (also known as The Sovereignty and Goodness of God) (1682) was written by Mary Rowlandson, Mary (White) Rowlandson, a married English colonist and mother who was captured in 16 ...

'', in which he appears as a minor character during Rowlandson's ransom negotiations. Printer worked as a typesetter for sixteen years before the outbreak of

King Philip's War King Philip's War (sometimes called the First Indian War, Metacom's War, Metacomet's War, Pometacomet's Rebellion, or Metacom's Rebellion) was an armed conflict in 1675–1676 between indigenous inhabitants of New England and New England coloni ...

King Philip's War

Printer's major contribution to American literature came during King Philip's War while he worked as a scribe for King Philip also known as

Metacomet Metacomet (1638 – August 12, 1676), also known as Pometacom, Metacom, and by his adopted English name King Philip, During the war, Printer left Cambridge for Hassanamesit. At the outbreak of King Philip's War, Printer was falsely accused of participating in the

Lancaster raid The Lancaster Raid was the first in a series of five planned raids on English colonial towns during the winter of 1675-1676 as part of King Philip's War. Metacom, known by English colonists as King Philip, was a Wampanoag sachem who led and organiz ...

, a raid on Lancaster, Massachusetts. He narrowly escaped death after an English mob accused him. Following his escape, the town of Hassanamesit was attacked by Metacomet's men who gave the inhabitants the choice to either come with them or stay and have their corn stores burned. Printer along with the other inhabitants chose to go with Metacomet's men. During his willing captivity, it is believed, Printer along with other Native American Christian captives came to sympathize with Metacomet's men. During the war, Printer was known and despised by the English for being a traitor. Printer is known for two letters he produced during King Philip's War. These letters were written from the Native Americans to the English. The first of the two notable letters was found tacked to a bridge post outside of the town of Medfield, Massachusetts in 1675. While the note was unsigned, several scholars attribute the note to James Printer. The note states that the English have provoked the Native Americans to war and that the Native Americans have nothing to lose in the fight but their lives while English may lose their property and possessions. This letter is notable due to its shrewdness to recognize that the loss of the colonists' private property would make them vulnerable. In addition the fact that the message was written in English was evidence that it could only have come from a Native American with extensive Christian education which showed the Englishmen's attempts to assimilate Native Americans was not wholly successful. Many have been puzzled by Printer's devaluation of Native American lives in the letter, but some scholars read it as an ironic appropriation of colonial logic, while others argue that is utilizes the English view of Native American lives as worth less than their own possessions. It has also been suggested that it highlights the Puritan view that Native Americans were agents of God sent to deprive New Englanders of material property to remind them of their commitment to God. The second letter is known to have been written by Printer during King Philip's War. This letter concerns the ransom for Mary Rowlandson, Mrs.

John Kettell John Kettell (c.1639-c.1676 or 1685 or c.1690) (also known as John Kettle) was an early settler, cooper, and explorer in what is Maynard, Massachusetts and Stow, Massachusetts. Kettell's family was taken captive by Native Americans in King Phil ...

, and other colonists held captive by King Philip's men. This letter was part of the negotiation for the release of Rowlandson and her fellow captives. The letter can be read as an attempt by Printer to mend fences with the English. The letter is an extraordinary example of early Native American writing which shows Printers writing skills. Ironically he later worked as the typesetter for Mary Rowlandson's narrative of her captivity ''The Sovereignty and Goodness of God'' published in 1682. After the war Printer was granted amnesty, but like the other Christian Native Americans he had to demonstrate his loyalty to the colonists. This demonstration likely involved bringing the heads or scalps of anti-English Native Americans with him on his return.

Later life

After King Philip's War, Printer returned to work as a printer in Cambridge. He later returned to Hassanamesit and taught there. He is described as working as a teacher for five Indian families in 1698. Following the war Printer advocated for Nipmuck land holdings. His son Ami signed the deed in 1727 which sold the last of the tribal lands at Hassanamesit.

References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Printer, James 1640 births 1709 deaths American printers People from Worcester County, Massachusetts Native American people from Massachusetts Native American history of Massachusetts Translators of the Bible into indigenous languages of the Americas 17th-century translators